Agriculture in the Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, the Islamic world made great advances in agriculture and animal husbandry. The Arabs used hydraulic and hydrostatic pumps to increase production. They also exported many agricultural products such as lemons, almonds, oranges, and bananas to Europe during this period. After the end of the Roman hegemony in the west of Europe, there was an increase in agricultural land due to people's food needs. They started to use oxen to cultivate large agricultural land more easily. Europeans also applied a simple crop rotation method by planting crops for one year and not planting for the following year. In Europe, the open-field system was used for a long time since the 800s.
Agriculture in the Seljuk Empire
In the Seljuk Empire, land was divided into three categories: Osri, Harac, and Miri.
- Osri: land given to the conquerors and other Muslims.
- Harac: land taken from the local population and given to non-Muslim landowners who paid a tax called Harac.
- Miri: lands that were confiscated for the treasury and temporarily transferred to others only for use. The part of the land reserved for the sultan was called Hass and the land allocated to soldiers living in rural areas was called Ikta.
There were problems with the allocation and use of Ikta lands in the Seljuk Empire. To prevent problems such as giving land to supporters, incomplete taxes to the state, and not cultivating land, these lands were given to commanders and soldiers, and these people earned their income from the given lands. One of the economic powers of the Anatolian Seljuk Empire was agriculture. Agricultural activities included field cultivation in villages by non-Muslim and Muslim farmers, livestock farming, especially sheep on extensive pastures, and fruit cultivation on the outskirts of large and small cities. The importance of livestock farming contributed to the advancement of leatherworking and weaving. The fleece of Ankara goats was exported to England and France.
Agriculture in the Ottoman Empire
According to records from the Ottoman Empire, a large part of the population earned their living from agricultural activities. Agricultural activities were largely controlled by the state, and this system was called the Miri system. The Tımar system formed the basis of agriculture in the Ottoman Empire. Lands whose income exceeded 100,000 akçes were called Has, and they were given to high-level administrators. Since these lands were given to positions, their owners could change frequently. Land with an income between 20,000 and 100,000 akçes was called Zeamet. These lands were given to commanders, lords, and banner lords. These landowners were responsible for raising one soldier for every 5,000 akçes. In the Ottoman Empire, a large majority of agricultural products were cereal crops. Although maize production was prohibited during this period, high income was obtained from maize. Rice, cotton, hemp, and tobacco were among the important markets. However, there were also many problems in agriculture in the Ottoman Empire, such as the inability to meet the needs of the growing population, the emergence of corruption, and the loss of production power.